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THE
SPORT JOURNAL
Published
by the United States Sports Academy
Preschool Children’s
Level of Proficiency in Motor Skills and the Level of their Physical Fitness as
Adolescents
ISSN: 1543-9518
2010, volume 13 number 3
Michelle Reillo, Eric Vlahov, Judith Bohren, Margaret
Leppo, and Diane Davis
Full Title: A longitudinal study to
determine and comprehend the relationship between preschool children’s level of
proficiency in motor skills and the level of their physical fitness as
adolescents
Abstract
The epidemic of pediatric obesity and
associated health-related issues in America is correlated with sedentary
behavior and physical inactivity. The purpose of this longitudinal research
study was twofold: a) to determine if a relationship existed between the level
of motor skill proficiency among children at preschool and the level of
physical fitness in adolescence and b) to determine if the embedding of learned
motor patterns associated with physical activity correlated with physical
fitness longitudinally. In 1988, the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD),
which assesses locomotor and object control skills, was administered to 140
preschool-aged children, ages 4 to 6 years, who were recruited purposively from
two day care centers in a large metropolitan city. In 1999, the American
Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD)
Fitness test, which has correlational validity with the TGMD (p < 0.01) and
assesses cardiorespiratory, muscular/strength, flexibility, and body
composition, was administered to 140 of the original subjects, aged 14 to16
years. Data analysis was completed using multivariate statistical procedures.
Results indicate that the level of proficiency in motor skills in early
childhood is predictive and correlates with the level of physical fitness in
adolescence (p < 0.001). Further, embedded motor patterns in the primary
motor cortex can be physically assessed and correlate with the presence or
absence of the targeted learning physical activity objectives. Physical
activity in early childhood is positively correlated with physical fitness in
adolescence, supporting the importance of pedagogical practices in physical
education that promote the physiological and psychological embedding of
behaviors which encourage physical activity. Future research is warranted to
determine the relationship between physical fitness and cognitive development
in children and adolescents.
Key Words: Adolescent, Childhood,
Fitness, Abilities
Introduction
According to the Centers for Disease
Control (CDC), in the year 2000, 64% of adults in the United States were
overweight, depicting an epidemic of individuals at risk for health-related issues
associated with obesity (6). As stated in Healthy People 2010, young citizens
are potentially vulnerable for becoming sedentary with progressive age and a
goal of the United States is to improve the health, fitness, and quality of
lives through participation in daily physical activity (7).
Sedentary behavior is correlated with an
increased incidence of cardio respiratory and endocrinologic disorders,
including hyperlipedemia and Type II diabetes mellitus in children and adults
(5). Immunologic dysfunction has likewise been associated with inactivity, and
the reduction in the levels of circulating lymphocytes, particularly CD4 and
CD8 cells, essential for the control of the development of malignancy, has been
noted in sedentary patients (4). Eosinophilic proliferation, which is critical
in the suppression of allergic reactions, has also been correlated with
exercise (3). Further, hypokinetic activity is associated with the progression
of cognitive and executive function decline in individuals with neurologic
disorders such as Alzheimer’s and multi-infarct brain syndrome (2). Minimal
human research has been conducted regarding cognition and exercise in normative
pediatric cohorts. However, animal research correlates increased neurogenesis
and the proliferation of neuronal cells, components associated with increased
memory and learning capabilities, with physical activity levels (8).
The embedding of motor patterns in the
primary motor cortex occurs in infancy and the repetition of rudimentary
movements provides the foundation for the development of progressively more
complex motor activities (1). Physiological attributes are associated with
primary motor cortex development which naturally occurs throughout the human
growth and development cycles (2). The literature is bereft of research which
explores the relationship between early childhood physical activities and
maintained physical fitness levels. The purpose of this longitudinal research
study was twofold: a) to determine if a relationship existed between the level
of motor skill proficiency among children at pre-school and the level of
physical fitness in adolescence and, b) to determine if the embedding of
learned motor patterns associated with physical activity correlated with
physical fitness longitudinally.
Methods
In 1988, the Test of Gross Motor
Development (TGMD), which assesses locomotor and object control skills, was
administered to 140 healthy preschool children, aged 4 to 6 years, who were
purposively recruited from two day care centers in a large metropolitan city.
In 1999, the AAHPERD fitness test, which has correlational validity with the
TGMD (p < 0.01) and assesses cardiorespiratory, muscular/strength,
flexibility, and body composition, was administered to 140 of the original
subjects, aged 14 to 16 years. Data analysis was completed using multivariate
statistical procedures.
Results
Results indicate that the level of
proficiency in motor skills in early childhood is predictive and correlates
with the level of physical fitness in adolescence (p < 0.001) (Tables 1-5).
Specific physical attributes associated with locomotor and manipulative skills
measured at baseline and in adolescence by the TGMD and AAHPERD indicate
primary motor cortex development, evident in limb and forearm movement, muscle
composition, and coordination required to longitudinally perform physical
activities, such as running, skipping, galloping, etc. (Table 6). Development
and progression of skill acquisition is individualized, requiring assessment
and instruction relative to the child. Implications for curriculum development
for the training of physical education professionals is suggested in light of
the physiological and neurological aspects of skill development.
Table 1
Means of TGMD and AAHPERD Scores
Means of TGMD and AAHPERD Scores
|
|
Mean
|
Males
|
Females
|
|
TGMD
|
|
||
|
Locomotor Skill
|
|
||
|
Raw
|
16.11
|
16.03
|
16.20
|
|
Standardized
|
11.91
|
11.65
|
12.20
|
|
Manipulative Skill
|
|
||
|
Raw
|
9.19
|
11.09
|
6.98
|
|
Standardized
|
12.77
|
14.08
|
11.26
|
|
Total
|
|
||
|
Raw
|
25.29
|
27.12
|
23.18
|
|
Standardized
|
24.68
|
25.73
|
23.46
|
|
Age
|
4.8
|
4.84
|
4.77
|
|
AAHPERD
|
|
||
|
Time to Run
|
80.93
|
66.70
|
97.35
|
|
No. Sit-ups
|
46.40
|
51.53
|
40.48
|
|
Flexibility Reach
|
33.47
|
32.20
|
34.94
|
|
Triceps/Body Comp.
|
13.06
|
9.20
|
17.51
|
Table 2
Linear Regression: Time To Run 1.5 Miles
Linear Regression: Time To Run 1.5 Miles
|
|
Beta
|
S.E.
|
R Sq.
|
P Value
(p < x) |
|
Total TGMD Score as Predictor
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
136.23
|
5.45
|
0.44
|
0.001
|
|
Total TGMD
|
-2.24
|
0.22
|
|
|
|
Total TGMD Score:
Body Composition
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
71.71
|
6.3
|
0.74
|
0.001
|
|
Total TGMD
|
-0.87
|
0.18
|
|
|
|
Body Composition
|
2.35
|
0.19
|
|
|
|
LSS Score as
Predictor
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
108.13
|
5.49
|
0.16
|
0.001
|
|
LSS Score
|
-2.28
|
0.44
|
|
|
|
LSS: Body
Composition
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
134.76
|
4.48
|
0.53
|
0.001
|
|
LSS Score
|
-0.76
|
0.27
|
|
|
|
Body Composition
|
2.72
|
0.17
|
|
|
|
MSS Score as
Predictor
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
134.76
|
4.48
|
0.53
|
0.001
|
|
MSS Score
|
-4.21
|
0.34
|
|
|
|
MSS Score: Body Composition
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
74.66
|
6.4
|
0.75
|
0.001
|
|
MSS Score
|
-1.74
|
0.34
|
|
|
|
Body Composition
|
2.18
|
0.2
|
|
|
Table 3
Linear Regression Number Sit-ups
Linear Regression Number Sit-ups
|
|
Beta
|
S.E.
|
R Sq.
|
P Value
(p < x) |
|
Total TGMD Score as
Predictor
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
7.88
|
2.61
|
0.63
|
0.001
|
|
Total TGMD
|
1.56
|
0.10
|
|
|
|
Total TGMD Score:
Body Composition
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
26.11
|
401
|
0.70
|
0.001
|
|
Total TGMD
|
1.17
|
0.12
|
|
|
|
Body Composition
|
-0.66
|
0.12
|
|
|
|
LSS Score as
Predictor
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
23.90
|
2.88
|
0.33
|
0.001
|
|
LSS Score
|
1.89
|
0.23
|
|
|
|
LSS: Body
Composition
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
45.87
|
3.20
|
0.60
|
0.001
|
|
LSS Score
|
1.27
|
0.19
|
|
|
|
Body Composition
|
-1.11
|
0.12
|
|
|
|
MSS Score as
Predictor
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
12.90
|
2.42
|
0.60
|
0.001
|
|
MSS Score
|
2.62
|
0.18
|
|
|
|
MSS Score: Body
Composition
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
29.32
|
4.43
|
0.65
|
0.001
|
|
MSS Score
|
1.95
|
0.23
|
|
|
|
Body Composition
|
-0.60
|
0.14
|
|
|
Table 4
Linear Regression Flexibility / Reach
Linear Regression Flexibility / Reach
|
|
Beta
|
S.E.
|
R Sq.
|
P Value
(p < x) |
|
Total TGMD Score as
Predictor
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
14.73
|
2.03
|
0.39
|
0.001
|
|
Total TGMD
|
0.76
|
0.08
|
|
|
|
Total TGMD Score:
Body Composition
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
9.08
|
3.41
|
0.41
|
0.001
|
|
Total TGMD
|
0.88
|
0.10
|
|
|
|
Body Composition
|
0.21
|
0.10
|
|
|
|
LSS Score as
Predictor
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
18.63
|
1.70
|
0.38
|
0.001
|
|
LSS Score
|
1.25
|
0.14
|
|
|
|
LSS: Body
Composition
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
20.21
|
2.43
|
0.38
|
0.001
|
|
LSS Score
|
1.20
|
0.15
|
|
|
|
Body Composition
|
-0.08
|
0.09
|
|
|
|
MSS Score as
Predictor
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
21.53
|
2.09
|
0.20
|
0.001
|
|
MSS Score
|
0.93
|
0.16
|
|
|
|
MSS Score: Body
Composition
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
19.18
|
4.08
|
0.21
|
0.001
|
|
MSS Score
|
1.03
|
0.21
|
|
|
|
Body Composition
|
0.09
|
0.13
|
|
|
Table 5
Linear Regression: Triceps Once / Body Composition
Linear Regression: Triceps Once / Body Composition
|
|
Beta
|
S.E.
|
R Sq.
|
P Value
(p < x) |
|
Total TGMD Score as
Predictor
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
27.47
|
1.71
|
0.35
|
0.001
|
|
Total TGMD
|
|
|
-0.58
|
0.07
|
|
LSS Score as
Predictor
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
19.71
|
1.64
|
0.012
|
0.001
|
|
LSS Score
|
|
|
-0.56
|
0.13
|
|
MSS Score as
Predictor
|
|
|||
|
Intercept
|
27.56
|
1.40
|
0.45
|
0.001
|
|
MSS Score
|
|
|
-1.14
|
0.11
|
Table 6
Physical Assessment and Corresponding Motor Cortex Development
Physical Assessment and Corresponding Motor Cortex Development
|
Skill
|
Primary Motor Cortex Motor Areas (X1 strong, X2 moderate, X3
weak)
|
|||||||||
|
|
Hips
|
Knees
|
Ankles
|
Toes
|
Shoulder
|
Upper Arm
|
Elbow
|
Forearm
|
Wrist
|
Digits
|
|
Running
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X2
|
X2
|
X2
|
X2
|
X3
|
X3
|
|
Walking
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X2
|
X2
|
X2
|
X2
|
X3
|
X3
|
|
Hopping
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X2
|
X2
|
X2
|
X3
|
X3
|
X2
|
|
Jumping
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X3
|
X3
|
X2
|
X2
|
X2
|
X2
|
|
Leaping
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X2
|
X2
|
X2
|
X3
|
X3
|
|
Sliding
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X2
|
X2
|
X2
|
X3
|
X3
|
|
Stationary
Bouncing |
X3
|
X3
|
X3
|
X3
|
X2
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
|
Overhead
Throwing |
X1
|
X2
|
X3
|
X3
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X2
|
|
Catching
|
X3
|
X3
|
X3
|
X3
|
X2
|
X2
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
X1
|
Discussions and
Conclusions
Physical activity in early childhood is
positively correlated with physical fitness in adolescence, supporting the
importance of pedagogical practices in physical education that promote the
physiological and psychological embedding of behaviors which encourage physical
activity. Further, physical assessment of attributes which correlate with
primary motor cortex growth and development supports the presence or absence of
embedded motor skills, supporting the need for tailoring specific lesson plans
for motor cortex growth and development for individual learners. The
development of assessment protocols and recommendations and educator training
modules is warranted in light of the results of this research study.
Applications in Sports
Comprehension of the cerebral function in
motor skills development is essential for the physical educator. In the
acquisition of motor skills which facilitate learning of particular sports,
specific and associated movements and patterns correlate with motor cortex
growth and development. Therefore, comprehension of the physiology and stage of
motor skill is essential for coaches and physical educators to enhance
individual and team performance.
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Corresponding Author
Michelle Reillo, RN, PhD: gasbear@aol.com
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